Michael Corral’s Elementary Calculus (2020)

June 8, 2022October 24, 2022

202206081501 Exercise 4.1 (Q15)

In an electric circuit with a supplied voltage (emf) $E$ , a resistor with resistance $r_0$ , and an inductor with reactance $x_0$ , suppose you want to add a second resistor. If $r$ represents the resistance of this second resistor then the power $P$ delivered to that resistor is given by

$\displaystyle{P=\frac{E^2r}{(r+r_0)^2+x_0^2}}$

with $E$ , $r_0$ , and $x_0$ treated as constants. For which value of $r$ is the power $P$ maximized?

_{extracted from Michael Corral. (2020). Elementary Calculus}

Lemma. (quotient rule)

Let $f(x)=\displaystyle{\frac{g(x)}{h(x)}}$ , where both $g$ and $h$ are differentiable and $h(x)\neq 0$ . The quotient rule states that the derivative of $f(x)$ is

$f'(x)=\displaystyle{\frac{g'(x)h(x)-g(x)h'(x)}{h(x)^2}}$

_{Wikipedia on Quotient Rule}

Roughwork.

Defining

$\begin{aligned} g(r) & = E^2r\\ h(r) & = (r+r_0)^2+x_0^2\\ \end{aligned}$

and

$\begin{aligned} g'(r) & = E^2\\ h'(r) & = 2(r+r_0)\\ \end{aligned}$

then

$\displaystyle{\frac{\mathrm{d}P}{\mathrm{d}r}}=0\Longrightarrow g'(r)h(r)-g(r)h'(r)=0$

Computing as follows

$\begin{aligned} (E^2)\big( (r+r_0)^2+x_0^2 \big) & = (E^2r)\big( 2(r+r_0) \big) \\ (r+r_0)^2+x_0^2 & = 2r(r+r_0) \\ r^2+2rr_0+r_0^2 +x_0^2 & = 2r^2+2rr_0 \\ r & = \sqrt{r_0^2+x_0^2} \\ \end{aligned}$

The mathematically formal way is to show that

$\displaystyle{\frac{\mathrm{d}^2P(r)}{\mathrm{d}r}\bigg|_{r=\sqrt{r^2_0+x_0^2}}}<0$

But from a physical point of view, assume that the electric currents $i$ passing through every components in series are the same, and the potential difference across each total up to the supplied voltage, namely,

$\begin{aligned} i(t) & = I_{\textrm{peak}}\sin (\omega t) \textrm{ where }I_{\textrm{peak}}\textrm{= const.} \\ E & = ir_0+x_0\frac{\mathrm{d}i}{\mathrm{d}t}+ir \\ \end{aligned}$

The power $P$ delivered to resistor $r$ is given by the formula

$\boxed{P=Vi=\displaystyle{\frac{V^2}{r}}=i^2r}$

and the only way to maximize $P$ , is to maximize either or both $i$ and $V$ .

Solving for a first-order ordinary differential equation:

$f(r,i,i')= ir_0+x_0i'+ir-E=0$

deriving current $i$ wrt $\omega t$ , we have

$\begin{aligned} 0 & = i'r_0+x_0i''+i'r \\ 0 & = -x_0I_{\textrm{peak}}\sin (\omega t)+(r_0+r)I_{\textrm{peak}}\cos (\omega t) \\ 0 & = -x_0\tan (\omega t) + r_0+r \\ \tan (\omega t) & = \frac{r_0+r}{x_0} \\ \sin (\omega t)&=\frac{r_0+r}{\sqrt{(r_0+r)^2+x_0^2}} \\ \end{aligned}$

Thus $i(r)=\displaystyle{I_{\textrm{peak}}\frac{r_0+r}{\sqrt{(r_0+r)^2+x_0^2}}}$

$\begin{aligned} P & = i^2r \\ & = \bigg(\frac{I_{\textrm{peak}}(r_0+r)}{\sqrt{(r_0+r)^2+x_0^2}}\bigg)^2 \cdot r \\ & = \frac{I_{\textrm{peak}}^2(r_0+r)^2r}{(r_0+r)^2+x_0^2} \\ \end{aligned}$

(to be continued)

Recall the relation between root mean square (rms) values and peak values:

$\begin{aligned} V_{\textrm{rms}} & = \frac{V_\textrm{peak}}{\sqrt{2}} \\ I_{\textrm{rms}} & = \frac{I_\textrm{peak}}{\sqrt{2}} \\ \end{aligned}$

Recall also that the resistance $R_L$ of an ideal inductor is zero ( $=0$ ), and that after the circuit has shortly reached steady state (i.e., constant current $i$ anywhere/anytime), the potential difference ( $\textrm{p.d.}$ ) or voltage drop ( $\Delta V$ ) across the inductor will become zero ( $=0$ ) before long.

Try again,

$\begin{aligned} I_{\textrm{peak}} & = i \\ \frac{I_{\textrm{peak}}^2(r_0+r)^2r}{(r_0+r)^2+x_0^2} & = \frac{i^2(r_0+r)^2r}{(r_0+r)^2+x_0^2} \\ & = \frac{(ir_0+ir)^2r}{(r_0+r)^2+x_0^2} \\ & = \frac{E^2r}{(r_0+r)^2+x_0^2} \\ \end{aligned}$

The derivative test seems inevitable. Maybe you could show that resistance $r=\sqrt{r_0^2+x_0^2}$ maximizes power $P$ , simply by drawing a phasor diagram?

(to be continued)

June 8, 2022October 24, 2022

202206081349 Exercise 4.1 (Q12)

The phase velocity $v$ of a capillary wave with surface tension $T$ and water density $p$ is

$\displaystyle{v=\sqrt{\frac{2\pi T}{\lambda p}+\frac{\lambda g}{2\pi}}}$

where $\lambda$ is the wavelength. Find the value of $\lambda$ that minimizes $v$ .

_{extracted from Michael Corral. (2020). Elementary Calculus.}

Setup.

Let $v=v(u(\lambda ))$ s.t.

$\begin{aligned} v(u) &=\sqrt{u} \\ u(\lambda ) & =\frac{2\pi T}{\lambda p}+\frac{\lambda g}{2\pi } \\ \end{aligned}$

$\begin{aligned} \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}u}\big( v(u)\big) & = \frac{1}{2}u^{-1/2}=\frac{1}{2}\Bigg(\sqrt{\frac{2\pi T}{\lambda p}+\frac{\lambda g}{2\pi}}\Bigg)^{-1} \\ \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}\lambda}\big( u(\lambda )\big) & = -\frac{2\pi T}{\lambda^2p}+\frac{g}{2\pi} \\ \end{aligned}$

Hence,

$\begin{aligned} \frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}\lambda} & = \bigg(\frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}u}\bigg) \bigg(\frac{\mathrm{d}u}{\mathrm{d}\lambda}\bigg) \\ & = \frac{1}{2}\Bigg(\sqrt{\frac{2\pi T}{\lambda p}+\frac{\lambda g}{2\pi}}\Bigg)^{-1}\bigg(-\frac{2\pi T}{\lambda^2p}+\frac{g}{2\pi}\bigg) \\ \end{aligned}$

Working.

For $\displaystyle{\frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}\lambda}}=0$ requires:

$\begin{cases} \displaystyle{\frac{2\pi T}{\lambda p}+\frac{\lambda g}{2\pi}} \neq 0 \\ \displaystyle{-\frac{2\pi T}{\lambda^2p}+\frac{g}{2\pi}}= 0 \\ \end{cases}$

Answer.

We have the satisfying stationary point:

$\lambda_0 =\displaystyle{2\pi\sqrt{\frac{T}{pg}}}$ .

It remains to be verified that this is a global minimum indeed.

(to be continued)

November 22, 2021October 24, 2022

202111221615 Exercises 9.1.A (Q1)

For Exercises 1-8, determine if the given sequence is convergent. If so then find its limit.

$\{ ne^{-n}\}_{n=0}^{\infty}$

Solution.

By L’Hôpital’s Rule, treating an integer $n \ge 0$ as a real-valued variable $x$ ,

$\begin{aligned} & \quad \lim_{n\to\infty} \frac{n}{e^n} \\ & = \lim_{n\to\infty} \frac{0}{e^n} \\ & = 0 \\ \end{aligned}$

Thus the sequence is convergent and its limit is $0$ .

October 15, 2021October 24, 2022

202110150945 Exercises 8.1.A (Q1)

For Exercises 1-6, find the area of the region bounded by the given curves.

$y=x^2$ and $y=2x+3$

Roughwork.

$\begin{aligned} y& = x^2 = 2x+3 \\ 0 &= x^2-2x-3 \\ 0 &= (x-3)(x+1) \\ x &=3,-1 \end{aligned}$

$\therefore$ $\{(3,9),(-1,1)\}$ are the points of intersection.

The area $A$ of the shaded region is

$\begin{aligned} A & = \int_{-1}^{3}|(2x+3)-(x^2)|\,\mathrm{d}x \\ & = \bigg[ x^2+3x-\frac{x^3}{3}\bigg]\bigg|_{-1}^{3} \\ & = \bigg( (3)^2+3(3)-\frac{(3)^3}{3}\bigg) - \bigg( (-1)^2+3(-1)-\frac{(-1)^3}{3}\bigg) \\ & = (9) - \bigg(-\frac{5}{3}\bigg) \\ & = \frac{32}{3}\quad \textrm{(squared units)} \\ \end{aligned}$

(alternatively)

$\begin{array}{cl} {A & = \displaystyle\int_{1}^{9}\bigg( \sqrt{y} - \frac{y-3}{2}\bigg)\,\mathrm{d}y + \int_{0}^{1}\Big( (\sqrt{y})-(-\sqrt{y})\Big)\,\mathrm{d}y }\\ & = \displaystyle\bigg( \frac{2y^{3/2}}{3}-\frac{y^2}{4}+\frac{3y}{2}\bigg)\bigg|_{1}^{9} + \bigg( \frac{4y^{3/2}}{3}\bigg)\bigg|_{0}^{1}} \\ & = \displaystyle\Bigg\{ \bigg[ \frac{2(9)^{3/2}}{3}-\frac{(9)^2}{4}+\frac{3(9)}{2}\bigg] -\bigg[\frac{2(1)^{3/2}}{3}-\frac{(1)}{4}+\frac{3(1)}{2}\bigg]\Bigg\} }\\ &\displaystyle\qquad \quad + \Bigg\{\bigg[\frac{4(1)^{3/2}}{3}\bigg] - \bigg[ \frac{4(0)^{3/2}}{3} \bigg]\Bigg\} }\\ & =\displaystyle \bigg( 18-\frac{81}{4}+\frac{27}{2}\bigg) - \bigg( \frac{2}{3}-\frac{1}{4}+\frac{3}{2} \bigg) + \bigg(\frac{4}{3}\bigg) - (0)} \\ & = \displaystyle\frac{32}{3}\quad \textrm{(squared units)}} \end{array}$

October 12, 2021October 24, 2022

202110121413 Exercise 8.5.B (Q21)

This exercise is related to Einstein’s famous law $E=mc^2$ . The relativistic momentum $p$ of a particle of mass $m$ moving at a speed $v$ along a straight line (say, the $x$ -axis) is

$\displaystyle{p=\frac{mv}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}}$ ,

where $c$ is the speed of light. The relativistic force on the particle along that line is

$\displaystyle{F=\frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}t}}$ ,

which is the same formula as Newton’s Second Law of motion in classical mechanics. Assume that the particle starts at rest at position $x_1$ and ends at position $x_2$ along the $x$ -axis. The work done by the force $F$ on the particle is:

$\displaystyle{W=\int_{x_1}^{x_2}F\,\mathrm{d}x=\int_{x_1}^{x_2}\frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}t}\,\mathrm{d}x}$

(a) Show that

$\displaystyle{\frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}v}=\frac{m}{\bigg( \displaystyle{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}\bigg)^{3/2}}}$ .

(b) Use the Chain Rule formula

$\displaystyle{\frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}t}=\frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}v}\frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}x}\frac{\mathrm{d}x}{\mathrm{d}t}}$

to show that

$\displaystyle{F\,\mathrm{d}x=v\frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}v}\,\mathrm{d}v}$ .

(c) Use parts (a) and (b) to show that

$\displaystyle{W=\int_{0}^{v}\frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}v}\, v\,\mathrm{d}v=\int_{0}^{v}\frac{mv}{\bigg(\displaystyle{ 1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}\bigg)^{3/2}}\,\mathrm{d}v}$ .

(d) Use part (c) to show that

$\displaystyle{W=\frac{mc^2}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}-mc^2}$ .

(e) Define the relativistic kinetic energy $K$ of the particle to be $K=W$ , and define the total energy $E$ to be

$\displaystyle{E=\frac{mc^2}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}}$ .

So by part (d), $K=E-mc^2$ . Show that

$E^2=p^2c^2+(mc^2)^2$ .

(Hint: Expand the right side of that equation.)

(f) What is $E$ when the particle is at rest?

Solution.

(a)

$\begin{aligned} \frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}v} & = \frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}v}\bigg( \frac{mv}{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}\bigg) \\ & = \frac{\bigg(\sqrt{1-\displaystyle{\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}\bigg)(m)-(mv)\bigg(\displaystyle{\frac{1}{2}}\Big( 1-\displaystyle{\frac{v^2}{c^2}}\Big)^{-1/2}\Big( -\displaystyle{\frac{2v}{c^2}}\Big)\bigg)}{\bigg(\sqrt{1-\displaystyle{\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}\bigg)^2} \\ & = \frac{\bigg( 1-\displaystyle{\frac{v^2}{c^2}}\bigg) (m)-(mv)\bigg( \displaystyle{-\frac{v}{c^2}}\bigg)}{\bigg( 1-\displaystyle{\frac{v^2}{c^2}}\bigg)^{3/2}} \\ & = \frac{m}{\bigg( 1-\displaystyle{\frac{v^2}{c^2}}\bigg)^{3/2}} \end{aligned}$

(b)

$\begin{aligned} \int_{x_1}^{x_2}F\,\mathrm{d}x & = \int_{x_1}^{x_2}\frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}t}\,\mathrm{d}x \\ \int_{x_1}^{x_2}F\,\mathrm{d}x & = \int_{x_1}^{x_2}\frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}v}\frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}x}\frac{\mathrm{d}x}{\mathrm{d}t}\,\mathrm{d}x \\ F\,\mathrm{d}x & = \frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}v}\frac{\mathrm{d}v}{\mathrm{d}x}\frac{\mathrm{d}x}{\mathrm{d}t}\,\mathrm{d}x \\ & = v\,\frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}v}\,\mathrm{d}v\\ \end{aligned}$

(c)

$\begin{aligned} W & =\int_{0}^{v}\frac{\mathrm{d}p}{\mathrm{d}v}\, v\,\mathrm{d}v \\ & = \int_{0}^{v}\Bigg( \frac{m}{\big( 1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}\big)^{3/2}}\Bigg) (v)\,\mathrm{d}v\\ & =\int_{0}^{v}\frac{mv}{\bigg(\displaystyle{ 1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}\bigg)^{3/2}}\,\mathrm{d}v \\ \end{aligned}$ .

(d)

$\begin{aligned} W & = \int_{0}^{v}\frac{mv}{\bigg(\displaystyle{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}\bigg)^{3/2}}\,\mathrm{d}v \\ \dots\enspace & \textrm{let }u=\frac{v}{c}\enspace\dots \\ \dots\enspace & \textrm{then }\mathrm{d}v=c\,\mathrm{d}u\enspace\dots \\ & = \int_{0}^{\frac{v}{c}}\frac{mc^2u}{(1-u^2)^{\frac{3}{2}}}\,\mathrm{d}u \\ \dots\enspace & \textrm{let }u=\sin\theta\enspace\dots \\ \dots\enspace & \textrm{then }\mathrm{d}u=\cos\theta\,\mathrm{d}\theta\enspace\dots \\ & = \int\frac{mc^2\sin\theta}{\cos^3\theta}\cdot\cos\theta\,\mathrm{d}\theta \\ & = \int\frac{mc^2\sin\theta}{\cos^2\theta}\,\mathrm{d}\theta \\ \dots\enspace & \textrm{let }w=\cos\theta\enspace\dots \\ \dots\enspace & \textrm{then }\mathrm{d}w=-\sin\theta\,\mathrm{d}\theta\enspace\dots \\ & \quad -\int \frac{mc^2}{w^2}\,\mathrm{d}w \\ & = \frac{mc^2}{w} \\ & = \frac{mc^2}{\cos\theta} \\ & = mc^2\sec\theta \\ & = \frac{mc^2}{\sqrt{1-u^2}} \\ & = \enspace\dots \\ & = \bigg[\frac{mc^2}{\sqrt{1-u^2}}\bigg]\bigg|^{\frac{v}{c}}_{0} \\ & = \frac{mc^2}{\sqrt{1-\displaystyle{\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}}-mc^2 \\ \end{aligned}$

Parts (e) and (f) are left to the readers.

September 16, 2021October 24, 2022

202109160920 Exercises 5.3.B (Q21)

Show that for all $x>0$ ,

$\displaystyle{\int_{0}^{x}\frac{\mathrm{d}t}{1+t^2}+\int_{0}^{1/x}\frac{\mathrm{d}t}{1+t^2}}$

is independent of $x$ .

Solution.

$\begin{aligned} & \qquad\int_{0}^{x}\frac{\mathrm{d}t}{1+t^2}+\int_{0}^{1/x}\frac{\mathrm{d}t}{1+t^2} \\ \dots &\enspace\textrm{as }\sin^2u +\cos^2u =1 \enspace\dots\\ \dots &\enspace\textrm{so }\tan^2u +1 = \sec^2u\enspace\dots \\ \dots &\enspace\textrm{let }t=\tan u \textrm{ then }\mathrm{d}t=\sec^2u\,\mathrm{d}u\enspace\dots \\ & = \int_{0}^{\arctan x}\frac{\sec^2u\,\mathrm{d}u}{1+\tan^2u} + \int_{0}^{\arctan (\frac{1}{x})}\frac{\sec^2u\,\mathrm{d}u}{1+\tan^2u} \\ & = \int_{0}^{\arctan x}\frac{\sec^2u\,\mathrm{d}u}{\sec^2u} + \int_{0}^{\arctan (\frac{1}{x})}\frac{\sec^2u\,\mathrm{d}u}{\sec^2u} \\ & = [u]|_{0}^{\arctan x} + [u]|_{0}^{\arctan (1/x)}\\ & = \arctan x + \arctan\bigg(\frac{1}{x}\bigg) \\ & \stackrel{(*)}{=} \frac{\pi}{2} \end{aligned}$

Lemma (*)

Let $y=\arctan x$ and $w=\arctan \displaystyle{\bigg(\frac{1}{x}\bigg)}$ ,

then $x=\tan y$ and $\displaystyle{\frac{1}{x}}=\tan w$ .

Thus,

$\begin{aligned} \tan y & = \frac{1}{\tan w} \\ \tan y & = \cot w \\ \tan y & = \tan \bigg(\frac{\pi}{2}-w\bigg) \\ y & = \frac{\pi}{2} - w \\ y + w & = \frac{\pi}{2} \\ \end{aligned}$

$\therefore\enspace \displaystyle{\arctan x + \arctan\bigg(\frac{1}{x}\bigg) = \frac{\pi}{2}}$

(independent of $x$ )

September 16, 2021July 25, 2022

202109160908 Exercises 5.1.A (Q18)

Use the free fall motion equation for position to show that the maximum height reached by an object launched straight up from the ground with an initial velocity $v_0$ is $\frac{v_0^2}{2g}$ .

Proof.

$\begin{aligned} v^2 & = u^2+2as \\ \dots \textrm{ upward} & \textrm{ taken to be positive }\dots \\ 0 & = v_0^2 + 2(-g)s \\ s & = \frac{v_0^2}{2g} \end{aligned}$

September 16, 2021October 24, 2022

202109160857 Exercises 5.1.A (Q17)

Integrate both sides of the equation

$\displaystyle{\frac{\mathrm{d}P}{P}+\frac{\mathrm{d}M}{M}=\frac{\mathrm{d}T}{2T}}$

to obtain the ideal gas continuity relation:

$\displaystyle{\frac{PM}{\sqrt{T}}=\textrm{constant}}$ .

Attempts.

$\begin{aligned} \int\frac{\mathrm{d}P}{P} + \int\frac{\mathrm{d}M}{M} & = \int\frac{\mathrm{d}T}{2T} \\ \ln |P| + \ln |M| - \frac{1}{2}\ln |T| & = C \\ \ln \bigg|\frac{PM}{T^{1/2}}\bigg| & = C \\ \frac{PM}{\sqrt{T}} & = \textrm{Const.} \\ \end{aligned}$

September 10, 2021October 24, 2022

202109101556 Exercises 1.2.C (Q16)

For Exercises 16-21, assuming that $f'(x)$ exists, prove the given formula.

$f'(x)=\displaystyle{\lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(x+2h)-f(x-2h)}{4h}}$

Proof.

Renaming by dummy variables.

Let $y=x-2h$ , then $x+2h=(x-2h)+4h=y+4h$ .

Rewrite it as

$f'(x)=\displaystyle{\lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(y+4h)-f(y)}{4h}}$ .

Note that

$\displaystyle{\lim_{h\to 0}}[\,\cdots ]\Rightarrow \displaystyle{\lim_{4h\to 0}}[\,\cdots ]$ .

So,

$\begin{aligned} f'(x) & = \lim_{4h\to 0}\frac{f(y+4h)-f(y)}{4h} \\ & = \lim_{\Delta y\to 0}\frac{f(y+\Delta y)-f(y)}{\Delta y} \\ & = \lim_{\Delta y\to 0}\frac{\Delta f}{\Delta y}\\ & = \frac{\mathrm{d}f}{\mathrm{d}y}\\ & = \dots\enspace \textrm{(discontinued)}\enspace \dots \\ \end{aligned}$

Do you spot the flaw in the ~~Proof~~?

(revised)

As left-hand limit and right-hand limit are equivalent,

i.e., $f'(x)=\displaystyle{\lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(x+h)-f(x)}{h}=\lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(x)-f(x-h)}{h}}$ ,

in our scenario, do write

$\begin{aligned} f'(x) & = \lim_{2h\to 0}\frac{f(x+2h)-f(x)}{2h}=\lim_{2h\to 0}\frac{f(x)-f(x-2h)}{2h} \\ \frac{1}{2}f'(x) & =\lim_{2h\to 0}\frac{f(x+2h)-f(x)}{4h}=\lim_{2h\to 0}\frac{f(x)-f(x-2h)}{4h}\\ \end{aligned}$

Then

$\begin{aligned} & \quad \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(x+2h)-f(x-2h)}{4h} \\ & = \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{\big( f(x+2h)-f(x)\big) + \big( f(x)-f(x-2h) \big) }{4h} \\ & = \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(x+2h)-f(x)}{4h} + \lim_{h\to 0}\frac{f(x)-f(x-2h)}{4h} \\ & = \lim_{2h\to 0}\frac{f(x+2h)-f(x)}{4h} + \lim_{2h\to 0}\frac{f(x)-f(x-2h)}{4h} \\ & = \frac{1}{2}\cdot f'(x)+\frac{1}{2}\cdot f'(x) \\ & = f'(x) \\ \end{aligned}$

QED

September 10, 2021October 24, 2022

202109101417 Exercises 1.1.A (Q5)

By equation (1.1), $\pi =4(1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\cdots )$ , where the $n^{\textrm{th}}$ term in the sum inside the parenthesis is $\frac{(-1)^{n+1}}{2n-1}$ (starting at $n=1$ ). So the first approximation of $\pi$ using this formula is $\pi\approx 4(1)=4.0$ , and the second approximation is $\pi\approx 4(1-\frac{1}{3})=8/3\approx 2.66667$ . Continue like this until two consecutive approximations have $3$ as the first digit before the decimal point. How many terms in the sum did this require? Be careful with rounding off in the approximations.

Attempts.

$1^{\textrm{st}}$ approximation:

$\pi\approx 4(1)=4.0$

$2^{\textrm{nd}}$ approximation:

$\pi\approx 4(1-\frac{1}{3})=\frac{8}{3}\approx 2.66667$

$3^{\textrm{rd}}$ approximation:

$\pi\approx 4(1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5})=\frac{52}{15}\approx 3.466667\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.})$

$4^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\pi\approx 4(1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7})=\frac{304}{105}\approx 2.89523\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.})$

$5^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\pi\approx 4(1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9})=\frac{1052}{315}\approx 3.33968\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.})$

$6^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\pi\approx 4(1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11})=\frac{10312}{3465}\approx 2.97605\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.})$

$7^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{147916}{45045} \\ & \approx 3.28374\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$8^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{135904}{45045} \\ & \approx 3.01707\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$9^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{2490548}{765765} \\ & \approx 3.25237\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$10^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{44257352}{14549535} \\ & \approx 3.04184\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$11^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$12^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$13^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{5385020324}{1673196525} \\ & \approx 3.21840\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$14^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$15^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$16^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$17^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$18^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$19^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$20^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$21^{\textrm{st}}$ approximation:

$22^{\textrm{nd}}$ approximation:

$23^{\textrm{rd}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{937558224301357108}{294362129962575675} \\ & \approx 3.18505\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$24^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\\ & \qquad\qquad\quad -\frac{1}{47}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{42887788022313481376}{13835020108241056725} \\ & \approx 3.09994\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$25^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\\ & \qquad\qquad\quad -\frac{1}{47}+\frac{1}{49}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{308120241932332116332}{96845140757687397075} \\ & \approx 3.18158\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$26^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\\ & \qquad\qquad\quad -\frac{1}{47}+\frac{1}{49}-\frac{1}{51}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{300524544618003693032}{96845140757687397075} \\ & \approx 3.10315\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$27^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\\ & \qquad\qquad\quad -\frac{1}{47}+\frac{1}{49}-\frac{1}{51}+\frac{1}{53}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{16315181427784945318996}{5132792460157432044975} \\ & \approx 3.17862\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$28^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\\ & \qquad\qquad\quad -\frac{1}{47}+\frac{1}{49}-\frac{1}{51}+\frac{1}{53}-\frac{1}{55}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{15941887430682586624816}{5132792460157432044975} \\ & \approx 3.10589\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$29^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\\ & \qquad\qquad\quad -\frac{1}{47}+\frac{1}{49}-\frac{1}{51}+\frac{1}{53}-\frac{1}{55}+\frac{1}{57}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{16302083392798897645516}{5132792460157432044975} \\ & \approx 3.17607\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$30^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\\ & \qquad\qquad\quad -\frac{1}{47}+\frac{1}{49}-\frac{1}{51}+\frac{1}{53}-\frac{1}{55}+\frac{1}{57}-\frac{1}{59}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{941291750334505232905544}{302834755149288490653525} \\ & \approx 3.10827\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$31^{\textrm{st}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\\ & \qquad\qquad\quad -\frac{1}{47}+\frac{1}{49}-\frac{1}{51}+\frac{1}{53}-\frac{1}{55}+\frac{1}{57}-\frac{1}{59}+\frac{1}{61}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{58630135791001973169852284}{18472920064106597929865025} \\ & \approx 3.17384\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$32^{\textrm{nd}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\\ & \qquad\qquad\quad -\frac{1}{47}+\frac{1}{49}-\frac{1}{51}+\frac{1}{53}-\frac{1}{55}+\frac{1}{57}-\frac{1}{59}+\frac{1}{61}-\frac{1}{63}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{57457251977407903460019584}{18472920064106597929865025} \\ & \approx 3.11035\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$33^{\textrm{rd}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\\ & \qquad\qquad\quad -\frac{1}{47}+\frac{1}{49}-\frac{1}{51}+\frac{1}{53}-\frac{1}{55}+\frac{1}{57}-\frac{1}{59}+\frac{1}{61}-\frac{1}{63}+\frac{1}{65}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{4507234389098153984166548}{1420993851085122917681925} \\ & \approx 3.17189\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

$34^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation:

$\begin{aligned} \pi & \approx 4\bigg( 1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+\frac{1}{9}-\frac{1}{11}+\frac{1}{13}-\frac{1}{15}+\frac{1}{17}-\frac{1}{19}+\frac{1}{21}-\frac{1}{23} \\ & \qquad\quad +\frac{1}{25}-\frac{1}{27}+\frac{1}{29}-\frac{1}{31}+\frac{1}{33}-\frac{1}{35}+\frac{1}{37}-\frac{1}{39}+\frac{1}{41}-\frac{1}{43}+\frac{1}{45}\\ & \qquad\qquad\quad -\frac{1}{47}+\frac{1}{49}-\frac{1}{51}+\frac{1}{53}-\frac{1}{55}+\frac{1}{57}-\frac{1}{59}+\frac{1}{61}-\frac{1}{63}+\frac{1}{65}-\frac{1}{67}\bigg) \\ & =\frac{296300728665235825268431016}{95206588022703235484688975} \\ & \approx 3.11219\quad (\textrm{5 d.p.}) \end{aligned}$

Summing without aim, I forgot my purpose. Where am I?

(discontinued)

(refreshed)

Please scroll up to the $7^{\textrm{th}}$ and $8^{\textrm{th}}$ approximation.

This required seven or eight terms in the sum for having $3$ as the first digit before the decimal point.